|
Effects of Pervasive
Computing on Sustainable Development
Since
pervasive computing is expected to
become ubiquitous in the coming years, the question arises whether it
will
support sustainable development or may counteract that aim. Based on
the
results of a technology assessment study we show that pervasive
computing could
amplify already existing problems related to the environment, human
health, and
society. Power consumption for digital networks, e-waste streams, and
exposure
to non-ionizing radiation may all increase. Furthermore, social
sustainability
could be threatened by the technology if it is applied in a way that
restricts
consumers’ privacy and freedom of choice. We refer to the precautionary
principle as an analytical framework for discussing the opportunities
and risks
of pervasive computing for sustainable development. Visionary New
Ways to Apply ICT Pervasive computing refers
to visionary new ways of applying information and communication
technologies
(ICT) to our daily lives. It involves the miniaturization and embedding
of
microelectronics in non-ICT objects and wireless networking, making
computers
ubiquitous in the world around us [1]. The miniaturization of
semiconductor
technology is bound to continue for about another 10 years without
breaking the
trend [2]. Further development of wireless communications by means of
mobile
phone networks and wireless local area networks (W-LAN) will play a
decisive
role. It is likely that the number of mobile ICT components per person
will
rise into the hundreds. Unlike most of today’s ICT products, pervasive
computing components will be equipped with sensors enabling them to
collect
data from their surroundings without the user’s active intervention. On
the
software level, so-called agent technologies will gain in importance.
Pervasive
computer refers to
visionary new ways of applying information and communication technologies (ICT) to our daily lives.
If our life is to be
pervaded in such ways by microelectronic components, running all the
time with
most of them wirelessly networked, one must ask whether these
technologies
might not have undesirable side effects that counteract the aim of a
sustainable information society [3], [4]. In a sensible discussion
about the
effects of pervasive computing on sustainable development the expected
benefits
need to be weighed against the potential risks involved. Our understanding of
sustainable development
is based on the so-called Brundtland definition: “A development is
sustainable
if it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability
of future
generations to meet their own needs” [5]. This definition can be
interpreted as
an extension of the ethical principle of justice in space and time,
leading to
the principles of intra- and intergenerational fairness. It implies
keeping as
much space for future decisions open as possible, since we cannot
anticipate
today what the needs of future generations will be. This is the aim of
the
precautionary principle [6], [7], which is recognized as one framework
for
sustainable development. The precautionary principle is intended to
anticipate
and minimize potentially serious or irreversible risks under conditions
of
uncertainty [8], [9]. Technology assessment for
pervasive computing that is oriented towards sustainable development
should,
therefore, pay attention to trends that may be socio-economically
irreversible
[10]. In a theoretical sense, the concept of irreversibility can only
be based
on natural science. However the impacts of a novel technology on
society may
cause a situation in which it is practically impossible to restore the
status
before the addressed effect of the technology has occurred. Irreversibility
based on cultural facts should
not be underestimated. As the diffusion of pervasive computing is
coupled with
considerable investments, it will be very difficult to change at a
later date. In order to make
precautionary measures effective, risk assessment has to be started as
early as
possible and is to be accomplished before such technologies have
penetrated the
market. This is especially true for pervasive computing, as the
diffusion of
this embedded and networked technology is practically irreversible due
to costs
of change and may therefore limit future development. Thus early
precautionary
measures could avert irreversible negative developments
cost-effectively. In this
way the precautionary principle can serve as a framework to
constructively set
the course for innovations [11]-[15]. The Swiss Centre for
Technology Assessment (TA-SWISS) commissioned a study to display the
opportunities and risks of pervasive computing, focusing on its impacts
on
human health and the environment. This article provides an overview of
the most
important results of that study [16]. Technology Assessment Study Approach
Pervasive
computing comprises a broad and dynamic spectrum of technologies
and applications. The assessment of long-term effects has to deal with
uncertainty for two reasons. First, scientific knowledge – for example
causal
models of the long-term health effects of non-ionizing radiation (NIR)
– is
insufficient. Second, it is an open question as to how pervasive
computing will
develop in its various fields of application. We cannot predict how
fast and to
what extent the technology will be taken up and how it will be used. Due to these
uncertainties, quantitative methods to evaluate expected risks are
inadequate.
To cope with the second type of uncertainty, possible development
trajectories
have been taken into account and described in scenarios.
We defined three
scenarios concerning the
future development and application of pervasive computing with a time
horizon
of 10 years: •
Moderate Scenario: Pervasive computing will only develop in
areas that are already pervaded by networked programmable
microprocessors (such
as the car). •
Average Scenario: Fields of application and their markets
develop according to the trends that can be observed today without
being
significantly pushed or counteracted. •
High-Tech Scenario: Computing will be highly ubiquitous
(anywhere, anytime computing). These scenarios differ mainly
in the degree of diffusion of pervasive computing applications and in
the
extent of connectivity. Experience gained from ICT products and
services show
that user behavior has a great influence on the development and
diffusion of a
technology and that the uncertainties of user behavior are usually high
[17].
In the case of pervasive computing, the knowledge of future usage
patterns is
extremely scarce, as the applications are just emerging. The application areas
chosen for the study were “housing,” “traffic,” “work,” and “health,”
of which
the most dynamic area was traffic. In addition, three cross-sectional
technologies – future digital media, wearables, and smart labels – were
investigated, of which smart labels are expected to become the first
type of
application to form part of our daily life. All defined scenarios and
application areas were reviewed by an external interdisciplinary expert
board
set up by the client of the study (TA-Swiss). Based on the scenarios
defined,
we made rough quantitative assessments (case studies) for selected
application
areas in order to extrapolate trends into the future. Thirty-nine
researchers
and other experts from industry, NGOs, and public authorities were
interviewed
after being briefed about the preliminary findings. They were first
asked to
help identify potential applications of pervasive computing likely to
be in
place by 2012. Second, their appraisals of the consequences of
technological
developments on selected environmental topics were gathered in formal
expert
interview situations or discussed in expert workshops. Repeated
consultations
of the selected experts both from science and from politics contributed
to the
validation of the results and to the identification of priority areas
for
precautionary action. The outcome of these
expert consultations was a list of the potential opportunities and
risks of
pervasive computing. After an initial screening the risks were filtered
in
order to separate the wheat from the chaff and – as a beneficial
side-effect of
the filtering – to recognize which risks have similar characteristics
and can
be clustered for complexity reduction [18]. Environmental Impacts Ecological
sustainability will be influenced by pervasive
computing in two ways: Pervasive computing will bring about additional
loads on
as well as benefits to the environment [19]. The environmental impact
over the
life cycle of single microelectronic components is not expected to
change
significantly with the trend to pervasive computing. Resource
Consumption Intel
expects that semiconductor technology will develop
continuously towards a design geometry of 22 nanometers within the
coming ten
years without a general change in material composition [20].
Semiconductor
miniaturization is accompanying the decrease in the power demand of
single
transistors, but this savings is being counteracted by a higher
structural
density and higher power leakage caused by quantum effects [2]. As the
acceptable energy consumption of silicon chips (e.g., microcontrollers)
for
mobile devices is limited by the power supply of batteries or other
portable
energy sources, the power demand of a single device cannot increase
very much. Assuming that a
pervasive computing device has
a mobile phone like size and a similar battery capacity of 1500 mAh, it
has to
be significantly more energy efficient than a 2004 mainstream PC using
about
210 W [21] and likewise a Pentium 4 Notebook (23 - 54 W) [22]. The
functional
requirement of low energy consumption provides a great opportunity to
the
environment on the macro level as pervasive computing could
increasingly
replace the PC for many applications (e.g., Internet access). However, due to the
increasing number of components that will be used, the total material
and
energy consumption caused by the production of electronic goods [23] is
still
expected to accelerate global resource depletion. The vision of
pervasive
computing implies that a large number of electronic components will be
used in
parallel (IBM estimates 1000 components per person [24]). Furthermore,
the
trend toward throwaway electronics caused by price reductions will
shorten the
average service life of electronic devices and components in general.
For these
reasons, a reduction of the total demand for raw materials by the ICT
sector
can be anticipated only in the moderate scenario. As the number of
components produced will increase dramatically in the Average and the
High-Tech
scenarios, a compensation or even over-compensation of the material
efficiency
gains brought about by continued miniaturization and integration is
more
likely. Fig. 1. shows the dependency between the weight per mobile
phone and
the total mass of all mobile phones sold in
Fig. 1. Individual and cumulative weight of mobile phones sold on Swiss market [16].
Direct
(primary)
environmental effects of pervasive computing also occur during the use
phase of
electronics, mainly due to the energy consumption of network
infrastructures,
which is estimated to increase as a result of increasing data traffic
generated
by pervasive computing. Networked household appliances with embedded
ICT, which
draw energy from the mains, require additional power. The energy demand
of the
network infrastructure needed for pervasive computing might be as large
as
several percent of total power consumption [25]. Always-on devices in
particular and devices in stand-by mode will also form a substantial
part of
the total electricity consumption. The energy efficiency of mains
adaptors and
power management technology will be important factors in the future as
always-on devices become more ubiquitous. On the other hand, there
is a great potential for power savings due to the trend to mobile
devices
because the acceptable weight of mobile devices limits battery size.
Energetically more efficient power supply technologies such as low
temperature
fuel cells are expected to enter the market in the coming years. In
addition
the optimization of energy management in buildings and facilities by
using more
intelligent controls represents a great potential for energy
efficiency.
However, the risk of additional energy consumption in total may
predominate if
incentives for rational energy use are missing [26]. End-of-Life
Treatment Another
environmental risk of pervasive computing is the release
of pollutants caused by the disposal of the resulting waste. Service
life is an
essential parameter of the waste generation by ICT products: halving
service
life means doubling the resource use for production and doubling the
amount of
waste disposed per service unit. As ICT products are often scrapped
after a
service life of only 10-50% of their technically possible lifetime,
there is
some risk that this problem will be extended to non-ICT goods with
embedded ICT
components (“smart objects”). By this effect, pervasive computing could
indirectly contribute to an increasing demand for raw materials and an
increasing amount of waste. The increasing quantities and shorter
service lives
of components that accompany pervasive computing will most probably
counterbalance or even outweigh the benefits obtained from progressing
miniaturization. End-of-life treatment of
pervasive computing will have to deal with large numbers of small
electronic
components that are embedded in other products. More and more
microelectronic
throwaway products, including rechargeable batteries, will be found in
waste
streams outside that of electronic waste (packaging, textiles). The
content of
hazardous substances might be uncritical in a single pervasive
computing
component, but in mass application a release of toxic substances into
the
environment is to be expected when the components are disposed of in an
uncontrolled way or enter recycling streams for materials like paper,
cardboard
or glass. The invisibility of pervasive computing components in many
products
will make it more difficult for consumers to differentiate between
electronics
and non-electronics. Therefore waste
separation by the
end-consumers will be almost impractical. As a consequence, the risk of
uncontrolled disposal of toxic substances as a part of household waste
could
counteract the goals of the European WEEE directive [27]. If no
adequate
solution is found for the end-of-life treatment of the electronic waste
generated by millions of very small components, precious raw materials
will be
lost and noxious pollutants emitted to the environment. Indirect
Effects In
contrast to these primary environmental impacts, there are also
second-order effects of ICT, i.e., optimizing material and energy
intensive
processes as well as substituting pure signal processing for such
processes.
The potential environmental benefits from such effects are considerable
and can
even outweigh the negative primary effects if, for instance, the
increasing
independence of activities from defined locations reduces traffic [28].
In
principle, some business travel can be replaced by telecommunication,
which
could save long-distance flights in particular [29]. However, using these
potential environmental benefits requires that there will be enough
incentives
to manage natural resources more economically. Otherwise, the growth in
demand
will counterbalance the savings. These so-called rebound effects are
likely to
occur, as the history of ICT has shown so far [30]. Pervasive computing
could
even intensify individual traffic as it supports independence from
fixed
locations and creates incentives for personal or commercial
relationships over
longer distances [31]. Whether the positive or
the negative effects of pervasive computing on the environment will
dominate
will depend on how effectively energy and waste policies govern the
development
of infrastructures and applications in the coming years.
One must ask whether these
Health-Related Aspects of Pervasive
Computing As
we have shown in the preceding sections, impacts of pervasive
computing can affect not only natural resources but also human health
due to
the emission of pollutants. Beyond that, human health will also be
affected by
technical characteristics of “smart objects” and the way they are used.
Exposure
to
Non-Ionizing Radiation First,
the ubiquitous use of miniaturized and embedded
microelectronic components interconnected in wireless networks could
have an
influence on human health due to the additional exposure to
non-ionizing
radiation. Unlike most of today’s ICT
products, pervasive computing components will be carried close to the
human
body. Additionally, a predominant part of mobile equipment will stay in
an
activated mode permanently for functional reasons. As a consequence, a
great
part of the emitted radiation will be absorbed by body tissue, so that
even low-emission
power can lead to comparably high local exposure over a longer period
[32], although
not to thermal effects. It is undisputed that
health damage results from thermal effects by high NIR-exposure. It is
generally assumed that an intensity above 100 W/kg has a negative
impact on
body tissue. Such thermal effects should be prevented by having
boundary values
for the specific absorption rate of 2 W/kg applying to cell phones. New
aspects, however, will arise in the context of pervasive computing, as
carrier
frequencies differ from application to application. The current
controversy over health risks of
cellular phone networks refers to athermal effects of non-ionizing
radiation,
i.e., effects that occur at low exposure. The following facts are known
from
past studies: • Non-thermal biological
effects have been observed in electroencephalograms done with sleeping
subjects
[33]; • Those effects depend on
signal modulation, i.e., they do not occur when a non-modulated carrier
signal
is used [34]. The
following are still unknown [35]: • A causal mechanism that
could explain the observed biological effects; • Whether those effects
can cause health damage; • Whether serious
long-term effects of NIR exposure occur. Furthermore, it is still
unclear whether the sensitivity to electromagnetic fields that is
observed in single
cases is based on biological mechanisms or has a purely psychological
explanation. Besides the biological
effects, attention must be given to the psychosomatic effects of NIR
exposure.
Anxious people can develop real symptoms if they are convinced that NIR
threatens their health. Only under far-reaching
assumptions might pervasive computing make possible a stabilization of,
or
decrease in, our daily exposure to non-ionizing radiation. An increase
is more
probable, as wireless local area networks (W-LANs) are being built in
addition
to mobile phone networks. In spite of their lower transmission power,
they will
add to the total exposure, unless they are used as a substitute for
existing
networks. Considering the fact that pervasive computing involves
wearing
radiation sources on the body (wearables) and even inside the body
(implants),
there is a need for further research. Even sources of low transmitting
power
may cause high exposure to radiation if they are very close to body
tissues.
There is a conflict potential, as non-users of pervasive computing will
see
themselves exposed to impairments caused by others, such as in the case
of “passive
smoking.” Physical
Contact with
the Human Body
Physical
contact with microelectronics can cause health risks as
well. With the growing number of devices worn closely to the human
body, a more
intensive dermal contact with the surface of these products (polymers
with
additives) is inevitable. Grit and effluvium can be reabsorbed
or inhaled
during longer periods. Due to the wide range of substances used for
microelectronics the risk of allergic reactions or chronic poisoning
increases.
Of course, the level of risk depends on the substances used and the
kind of
encapsulation or other design measures taken to prevent abrasion or
effluvium. Active implants, i.e.,
microelectronic devices inside the human body, provide great
therapeutic
advantages. They can be used as a component of computer-controlled
prostheses
such as brain pacemakers or for artificial sense organs. There are possible side
effects of active implants that are still unexplored: • Health reactions to
substances that are dissolved from the implant surface; • Influence on
functionality and behavior of cells, which are in direct contact with
the
implant surface (protein adsorption or denaturation on the implant
surface); • Mechanical stress within
the body tissues surrounding the implant; • Disturbance of cell-cell
interaction caused by electrical or optical activity [36]; • Effects of high local
NIR exposure in very small areas within body tissue caused by active
implants. Those
risks can be influenced by design engineering of implant
wrapping and clinical tests. There is need for further research in this
field.
Psychological
Stress Further
health-relevant effects of pervasive computing can be
caused indirectly by influences on user behavior and the social context
encountered. In particular, pervasive computing could cause stress for
various
reasons, such as poor usability, disturbance and distraction, the
feeling of
being under surveillance (privacy issues), the possible misuse of
technology
for criminal purposes, as well as increased demands on individuals’
productivity. Stress has a considerable impact on health. Although there is a
promising opportunity for
better adaptation of pervasive computing to human needs [37],
experience with
established ICT shows that interfaces with poor ergonomic quality are
widely
accepted by consumers. There is a general trend to frequent distraction
of
human attention caused by technical devices. Such disturbances are
likely to
increase in future due to the diffusion of pervasive computing gadgets.
The
question is still open as to how such harassments can be effectively
prevented. Medical
Applications The
most significant opportunities of pervasive computing are
expected in the form of medical prevention, treatment and health care.
In
particular the quality of life for chronically ill or convalescent
patients can
be improved as their dependence on hospital facilities will be reduced
by new
remote methods of personal health monitoring and by active implants
[38]. These
medical opportunities will be accompanied by the risk that active
implants
might have unexpected side effects or that an “over-instrumented”
medicine
might have negative psychological impacts on patients subjected to
close
observation. To sum up: Pervasive
computing is expected to cause undesirable effects on human health that
could
counterbalance the opportunities in the health sector. From the
viewpoint of
sustainability, this suggests that the risks should be minimized by
applying
precautionary measures to early stages of technological development. Social
Implications Social
effects of pervasive computing have to be seen as relevant
for sustainable development as ICT is expected to interact intensively
with
social practices, which may result in profound changes to social rules
and
structures in the near future. Compared to the environmental risks or
direct
health effects, an assessment of the socio-economic effects has to deal
with
even higher uncertainty because societal development trajectories are
almost
unpredictable. As social and
environmental effects are tightly intertwined (social practices affect
the
environment, and vice versa), it seems advisable not to restrict the
precautionary principle to environmental regulations, but anchor it
also in
other parts of legislation such as, e.g., consumer regulations. In the
following section, sustainability-related opportunities and risks of
pervasive
computing for society are illustrated. Digital
Divide New
forms of human-computer interaction can lower physical and
intellectual barriers against the use of ICT and facilitate
participation to
the information society. That could contribute to a reduction of the
digital
divide separating social groups [39]. According to the vision of
pervasive
computing users will be relieved from technical restrictions by better
usability [40]. Handicapped and sick persons will benefit from
applications
that lower physical barriers, or even permit access for the first time.
From
the present point of view it is hard to anticipate whether pervasive
computing
will reach a higher degree of adaptation to the human. Consumer
Freedom of
Choice At
the same time there is a
risk that consumer freedom about which
technology to use will be limited. As ICT dominates more and more
activities
(such as banking, learning, and shopping), alternatives to using ICT
may
disappear in certain cases. Persons who do not want or are not able to
use ICT
for certain reasons would be practically excluded from such services.
The
consumer can no longer decide freely for which activities he or she
will use
ICT, or not. Moreover, a loss in
competition among service providers may occur if proprietary de-facto
standards
continue to play a significant role in the computer economy. As a
result the
consumer may lose the power to decide which ICT products or ICT
services he
uses and what price he pays. This is true in the first instance on the
software
level. But as real world objects become equipped with microcomputers
that make
them smart, the problem may extend also to physical everyday objects.
Smart
objects will usually operate only with proprietary software and when
the user
holds the rights for using it. Technologies for digital rights
management may
be applied not only for digital content but also for the regulation of
the
functionality of physical objects. Auto-identification of objects by
Radio
Frequency Identification (RFID) may be utilized in this way for
instance.
Producers may use their enhanced influence on the functionality of
“smart”
objects for the purpose of market separation or forcing customer
loyalty. Due
to the loss of market forces in a monopolized market situation, the
quality of
ICT products and services may decrease. Information
Overload Access
to information and knowledge will work more efficiently
under pervasive computing. Access will be possible everywhere and
anytime
(pervasiveness), and be dependent upon one’s location and local
environment
(context sensitivity). That will provide better opportunities for
self-determined forms of learning and participation. Users will get
easy access
to context-based information (city map, timetable), enabling better
orientation
and decision-making. Furthermore, new forms of work (mobile
teleworking) will
be supported. On the other hand, the
user will be flooded with information even more than by the Internet
today. In
contrast to present ICT, pervasive computing will surround humans
almost all
the time (in particular if implemented as “wearable computing”) and
makes them
a target for uninterrupted influence. In a market situation the user’s
conscious attention will become a scarce resource that will be hard
fought
after by commercial advertisers. It will become more and more difficult
to
relax mentally by merely turning away from the information flood. Even
if the
user has the ability to refuse the perception of information, in every
case he
has to make a decision how to handle a message or stimulus first. There
is a
risk of general increase of disturbance and interruption caused by
pervasive
computing. Privacy
Pervasive
technologies also pose a problem for privacy. In
particular, RFID transponders in the form of "smart labels" will
probably become the first and most widespread example of pervasive
computing.
With "smart labels" it will be much easier to protect goods from
theft or imitation. In combination with new computer-supported
authentication
technologies (e.g., biometrics) there is an opportunity to protect
buildings
and facilities better from unauthorized access. The same technology can
also be used to intrude on the privacy of people. As RFID is intended
to be
used for unique identification of real-world objects (e.g., items sold
in
supermarkets), RFID systems can also be used for tracking the owner of
the item
as well as for object monitoring after the point of sale [41].
Accumulation of
RFID transaction data by the regular RFID owner can threaten privacy
more than
eavesdropping of unsecured radio-frequency interfaces by a third party.
Such
data collection is already under discussion with the payback cards
offered to
customers by retailers. "Smart labels" will aggravate this problem,
as a more extensive collection of personalized data is possible and the
consumer is nearly unable to control access to the data. This applies
to both
the data stored on the RFID chips and those in centralized databases
and
associated with the unique IDs of the chips. Both data privacy and
location
privacy will be difficult to ensure in a world pervaded by RFID
transponders. Security
Issues New
forms of computer crime may emerge due to the refined
networking, embedding, and pervasiveness of ICT. Security can be
undermined by
the susceptibility to failure of a complex technology that is not well
designed. Security vulnerability of software that promotes criminal
abuse has
already become a major economic problem in the use of Internet. In the
case of
pervasive computing, ICTs not only process information, but can also
control
physical processes. As a consequence, failure or criminal attacks in
the
virtual sphere can threaten physical inviolacy of persons and
infrastructure. Opportunities and Risks Within
the context of the scenarios of the study [16] we have
identified areas in which pervasive computing may both collide with or
support
the aim of a sustainable information society. It is difficult to
forecast the relative dominance of opportunities or risks due to the
openness
of the development, i.e. the highly dynamic character in technological
and
social development processes. It is to be expected that pervasive
computing
will amplify already existing trends such as growing e-waste streams,
increasing power consumption for digital networks or increasing
exposure to
non-ionizing radiation. Pervasive computing can also generate stress
for
various reasons, such as poor usability, disturbance and distraction,
the feeling
of being under surveillance (privacy issues) or the well-founded fear
of misuse
of the technology for criminal purposes. Therefore pervasive computing
has the
potential to influence social practices and to lead to social conflicts. What would be an adequate
reaction to the risks identified by the study? In environmental policy,
the
precautionary principle has been established as an appropriate concept
for
action in face of technology caused risks to the nature and human
health. In
the context of sustainable development, an expansion of precautionary
principle
for social implications should be discussed. To make pervasive
computing sustainable,
precautionary measures have to be initiated at the earliest possible
time.
First of all, national strategies towards sustainability, such as the
Swiss
Sustainable Development Strategy [42] are to be seen as a paradigm for
the
technological innovation process. Without a clear strategy to promote
the
social and ecological compatibility of new technologies, the innovation
process
would be purely technology-driven and might cause severe conflicts and
high
external costs in the future. Application of the
precautionary principle would also require more product stewardship
from
leading ICT producers. It is essential that development trajectories be
adjusted towards sustainability before pervasive computing components
become
mass products because of the socioeconomic irreversibility of
technology
diffusion: after launch it will be difficult to correct any resulting
disadvantageous
effects. Adequate measures to manage product stewardship in the field
of
environmental aspects are eco-design, the inclusion of Life Cycle
Assessment
(LCA) in the decision process, and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) [43].
Furthermore
the precautionary principle motivates developers and users to explore
technological alternatives [44]. Foresight and monitoring
activities are appropriate methods to generate early warnings about
risks
caused by novel technologies. Scientific minority opinions may serve as
early
warnings [45]. The German Advisory Council on Global Change (WBGU) even
promotes broad participation by civil society in the discussion of new
technologies in order to create knowledge about uncertain risks and
deal with
them adequately [46]. The Swiss Centre for Technology Assessment
(TA-SWISS)
organizes citizens’ participation panels (“Public-Forum”), which is a
promising
approach in this context [47]. Pervasive computing
becomes interesting for business and consumers when opportunities
outweigh the
risks – not only for the individual user, but also for society and the
environment. The principle of sustainability is therefore an
appropriate
concept in order to achieve acceptability for this evolving technology.
Acknowledgment This
work was initiated and financed by the Swiss Centre for Technology
Assessment (TA-SWISS). The authors
wish to
thank Thomas Ruddy, Author
Information The
authors are with the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing
and
Research (EMPA), References [1]
F.
Mattern, “Vom Handy zum allgegenwärtigen Computer - Ubiquitous
Computing:
Szenarien einer informatisierten Welt,” in Analysen der
Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung zur Informationsgesellschaft. [2]
G.E.
Moore, “No exponential is forever: But "Forever" can be delayed!
[semiconductor industry],” in Dig. Tech.
Papers IEEE Solid-State Circuits Conf. (ISSCC) 2003, 2003, vol. 1, pp. 20-23. [3]
L.M.
Hilty and T.F. Ruddy, “Towards a sustainable information society, Informatik/Informatique,
vol. 4, pp. 2-7, 2000. [4]
L.M.
Hilty and P.W. Gilgen, Eds., Sustainability in the Information
Society, Proc
15th Int. Symp. Informatics for Environmental Protection, [5]
WCED (World
Commission on Environment and Development), Our
Common Future. [6]
D.
Koechlin, “Das Vorsorgeprinzip im Umweltschutzgesetz, Unter besonderer
Berücksichtigung der Emissions- und Immissionsgrenzwerte,” Neue
Literatur
zum Recht. [7]
H.M.
Beyer, “Das Vorsorgeprinzip in der Umweltpolitik,” Schriftenreihe
Wirtschafts- und Sozialwissenschaften, vol. 10. Ludwigsburg/Berlin:
Wissenschaft & Praxis, 1992. [8]
F.C.
Cranor, “Learning from the law to address uncertainty in the
precautionary
principle,” Science and Engineering Ethics, vol. 7, pp.
313-326, 2001. [9]
Rehbinder
and Eckhard, “Das Vorsorgeprinzip im internationalen Vergleich,” in Umweltrechtliche
Studien, Technik, Umwelt, Energie, Recht, U. Battis, E.
Rehbinder,
G., Eds, vol. 12, 1991. [10]
C. Som,
L.M. Hilty, and T.F. Ruddy, “The precautionary principle in the
information society,” Human and Ecological Risk Assessment,
vol. 10, 2004. [11]
N.A.
Ashford, “A conceptual framework for the use of the precautionary
principle in
law,” in Protecting Public Health, Implementing the Precautionary
Principle,
C. Raffensperger and J.A. Tickner, Eds. Washington, DC: Island Press,
1999, pp.
198-206. [12]
D.
Santillo and P. Johnston, “Is there a role for risk assessment within
the
Precautionary Legislation,” Human Ecol. Risk Assess., vol. 5,
pp.
923-932, 1999. [13]
J.D.
Graham, “Perspectives on the Precautionary Principle,” Human Ecol.
Risk
Assess., vol. 6, pp. 383-385, 2000. [14]
Kriebel et al., “The precautionary principle in
environmental science,” Environmental Health Perspectives, vol.
109, pp.
871-876, 2001. [15]
A.
Stirling et al., “On science and precaution
in the management of technological risk,” ESTO Project Rep., prepared
for the
European Commission – JRC Institute Prospective Technological Studies,
Seville,
Spain, 2001. [16]
L.M.
Hilty et al. “Das Vorsorgeprinzip in
der Informationsgesellschaft: Auswirkungen des Pervasive Computing auf
Gesundheit und Umwelt,” Swiss Centre for Technology Assessment
(TA-SWISS), Rep.
TA 46/2003, 2003. [17]
R.
Hischier and [18]
L.M.
Hilty et al., “Assessing the human,
Social and Environmental Risks of Pervasive Computing,” Human and
Ecological
Risk Assessment, vol. 10, 2004. [19]
J.
Goodman and V. Alakeson, “The future impact of ICT on environmental
sustainability. Scenarios,” commissioned by Institute for Prospective
Technological Studies (IPTS), [20]
R.
Sietmann, “Intel: Kein Ende für Silizium,” heise online
news, May 1, 2003, Available:
http://www.heise.de/newsticker/meldung/36531. [21]
O. Mann,
“IT-Stromfresser im PC: Komponenten im Überblick,” CHIP-online,
p. 1,
Sept. 2004, available:
http://www.chip.de/artikel/c_artikel_12200523.html?tid1=&tid2= [22]
R. Mösl,
Computer - Notebook Stromverbrauch, Sept. 2004, available:
http://notebook.pege.org/benchmarks/warten-stromverbrauch.htm. [23]
E.D.
Williams et al., “The 1.7 kilogram
microchip, energy and material use in the production of semiconductor
devices,” Environmental Science & Technology, vol. 36, no.
24,
pp. 5504 -
5510, Dec. 15. 2002. [24]
L.V.
Gerstner, IBM, 2000, p.1, available:
http://www-5.ibm.com/de/entwicklung/produkte/pervasive.html. [25]
B.
Aebischer and A. Huser, “Vernetzung im Haushalt. Auswirkungen auf den
Stromverbrauch,” commissioned by Bundesamt für Energie (Swiss Federal
Office of
Energy), [26]
V. Türk,
M. Ritthoff, J. Geibler, and M. von Kuhndt, “Internet: virtuell =
umweltfreundlich? [Internet: virtual = environmentally sound?],” in: Jahrbuch
Ökologie, G.Altner, B. Mettler-von Meibom, U. Simonis, and E.U.
Weizsäcker
von Ed., München, Germany, 2003, pp.
110-123. [27]
European
Parliament, DIRECTIVE 2002/96/EC on waste electrical and electronic
equipment
(WEEE), 2003. [28]
A.
Koehler and L. Erdmann, “Expected environmental impacts of pervasive
computing,” Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, vol. 10,
2004. [29]
P.
Zoche, S. Kimpeler et al., Virtuelle
Mobilität: Ein Phänomen mit physischen Konsequenzen? Zur Wirkung der
Nutzung
von Chat, Online-Banking und Online-Reiseangeboten auf das physische
Mobilitätsverhalten. [30]
F.J.
Radermacher, “Globale Herausforderungen: Nachhaltige Entwicklung und
Informationsgesellschaft,” OR News, pp. 15-17, Aug. 1997. [31]
S.
Rangosch, “Videokonferenzen als Ersatz oder Ergänzung von
Geschäftsreisen,” Wirtschaftsgeografie
und Raumplanung, Universität Zürich: 223, Zürich, 1997. [32]
J.
Fröhlich and N. Kuster, “Expected exposure from pervasive computing,”
in Hilty et al., Rep. TA 46/2003, Swiss Centre
for Technology Assessment (TA-SWISS), 2003. [33]
R. Huber et al., “Exposure to pulsed
high-frequency electromagnetic field during waking affects human sleep
EEG,” Neuroreport,
vol. 11, pp. 3321-3325, 2000. [34]
Independent Expert Group on Mobile Phones, “Mobile phones and health.” The
Stewart Report, [35]
F.
Würtenberger and S. Behrendt, “Electromagnetic field exposure from
Pervasive
Computing,” Human and Ecological Risk Assessment, vol. 10,
2004. [36]
F. A.
Popp and J. Chang, “Photon sucking and the basis of biological
organization,”
International Institute of Biophysics, Oct. 23, 1999, available:
http://www.datadiwan.de/iib/ib0201e4.htm;
http://www.bion.si/research/Biophotons.htm [37]
M.
Weiser, “The world is not a desktop,” Interactions,
pp. 7-8, Jan. 1994. [38]
A.
Grote, “Gesundheits-Check durch körpernahe Sensorik,” Heisse
online, Aug. 2001, available:
http://www.heise.de/newsticker/data/jk-08.08.01-003 [39]
T.F.
Ruddy “A European perspective on the global digital divide,” in Proc.
15th
Environmental Informatics Symposium, [40]
M.
Weiser, “The computer for the 21st century,” Scientific Amer.,
vol. 265,
no. 3, pp. 94-104, 1991. [41]
S.A.Weiss et al., “Security and privacy
in radio-frequency identification devices,” M.I.T., [42]
Bundesrat, “Strategie Nachhaltige Entwicklung 2002,”
Interdepartementaler
Ausschuss Rio (IDARio): 44, Bericht des Schweizerischen Bundesrates,
[43]
European
Commission, “Green paper on integrated product policy,” COM, [44]
C.
Raffensberger and J. Tickner, Eds., “Protecting public health and the
environment: Implementing the Precautionary Principle.” [45]
European
Environmental Agency (EEA), “Late lessons from early warnings: The
Precautionary
Principle 1896-2000,” [46]
Wissenschaftlicher Beirat der Bundesregierung Globale
Umweltveränderungen (WBGU), Welt im Wandel, Strategien zur
Bewältigung globaler [47]
S. Joss
and ©
2005 IEEE. Personal use of this material
is permitted. However, permission to reprint/republish this material
for
advertising or ressale or redistribution to servers or lists, or to
reuse
any copyrighted component of this work in other works must be obtained
from IEEE.
|
